Ruby Hyland – Stemify News

Unraveling the Enigma of SSRIs: How Do They Work, and Do They Really?

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SSRIS, or Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, are a type of psychiatric drugs used to treat symptoms of depression and anxiety, or depressive and anxiety disorders. They are the most commonly prescribed antidepressants, and first began being used clinically in the late 1980s. The first ever SSRI, fluoxetine, was cleared for prescription usage in the United States in 1988, and paved the way for a new, much more reliable form of antidepressants. As of 2018, it is estimated that 13.2% of Americans above the age of 12 are on some form of SSRIS. The question is, what are they, really, and how do they work?

It’s important to first understand the Serotonin Hypothesis of Depression. This hypothesis states that low levels of serotonin (a neurotransmitter related to mood, sleep, digestion, and much more) in the brain, or an inability to process serotonin correctly, is the leading cause of depression. Within this hypothesis lays the groundwork for SSRIS; the theory being that increasing serotonin in the brain lowers symptoms of depression. Therewithal, it is incredibly difficult for scientists to measure serotonin levels, as when done through bodily fluids, such as blood, urine, or cerebrospinal fluid, deficits do not appear, even when the person has been clearly diagnosed with depression. This is because neurotransmitter levels in the brain are extremely localized, and therefore not well reflected by levels throughout the rest of the body. This makes it difficult for scientists to objectively ‘prove’ the serotonin hypothesis, and as of 2022, many psychiatrists no longer accept the serotonin hypothesis, claiming there is no direct correlation between serotonin levels and depression. But, if the serotonin hypothesis is false, why are SSRIS so commonly used, and do they really work?

Here’s what we do know. After a few doses of an SSRI, serotonin levels in the brain increase. This happens because the SSRI blocks the reabsorption (or reuptake) of serotonin into the neurons, allowing the neurotransmitter to better send messages between neurons. SSRIS are classified as selective because they only block the reabsorption of serotonin, and not of other neurotransmitters. If the SSRI works properly, the patient should see decreased symptoms of depression within the first two weeks to a month. And that’s it. That’s how they work. It seems quite simple, and foolproof, but many psychologists have begun to find holes in the argument for this.

Research done by Moncrieff et al includes compelling data suggesting that there is no consistent evidence linking lowered serotonin concentration or activity to depression. They therefore suggest it is “time to acknowledge the serotonin theory of depression is not empirically substantiated.” This leads many to question the effectiveness of SSRIS. But how could that be? For the most part, patients who use SSRIS report their symptoms of depression and anxiety decreasing significantly, as well as their mood stabilizing. It is possible that this is partially because of a placebo effect, which is when a person’s belief in the treatments is what is causing their improvement, and not the treatment itself. It is also possible that researchers claims do not hold as much truth as they believe. Despite there clearly being evidence of a lack of a correlation, there is also decades worth of evidence that SSRIS do work.

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Furthermore, it is important to note that we do not understand everything about SSRIS. The brain, and therefore, psychiatric medications, are incredibly complex. We tend to find that there isn’t just one answer to the psychology questions we seek, especially when considering that everyone is different, and there are lots of things we still don’t know about the brain. Psychiatrists and psychologists alike do not suggest stopping SSRIS if you are on one, especially not without consulting your physician. As research continues, we hope to find more of the answers we seek, although it’s hard to say what the near future holds for current theories about SSRIS and other psychiatric medications.

Sources:

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/ssris/art-20044825

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9669646/#B17

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/denying-the-grave/202209/we-still-don-t-know-how-antidepressants-work

https://www.nhsinform.scot/tests-and-treatments/medicines-and-medical-aids/types-of-medicine/selective-serotonin-reuptake-inhibitors-ssris#:~:text=It’s%20 thought%20to%20have%20a,messages%20between%20 nearby%20never%20 cells.

https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db377.htm

Déjà Vu: The Brain’s Mysterious Illusion

Psychology, Science / By Ruby Hyland

We all know what déjà vu is, and no, we’re not talking about Olivia Rodrigo’s hit song. But what does it mean? A reported 97% of people have experienced déjà vu, but most don’t understand what it truly is. So, what psychological processes are involved in that odd, reminiscent feeling? Why does it happen? Why are our brains tricking us? Is it dangerous? Read to find out!

Technically, déjà vu is your brain creating an illusion. According to the Cleveland Clinic, déjà vu is caused by a dysfunctional connection between two parts of your brain. As explained by Dr. Khoury, a Neurologist and MD, déjà vu is a “subjectively inappropriate impression of familiarity of a present experience with an undefined past.” Basically, you feel you’re re-experiencing something you are almost sure you couldn’t. Scientists have traced this phenomenon back to recognition memory, composed of two aspects: recollection and familiarity. The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex control these aspects, respectively. The hippocampus controls long-term memory formation and spatial memory, allowing us to identify the position of objects regarding our bodies and concerning other objects. This contributes to the hippocampus’s ability to control recollection. Recollection allows us to remember and recognize things we have experienced before and to recall information (like on a test). Furthermore, the prefrontal cortex, specifically the lateral regions, including the anterior and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, are responsible for familiarity. Familiarity memory occurs when a situation feels familiar, but a specific memory cannot be pinpointed.

When your brain confuses a familiar memory for that of a recollection, déjà vu occurs. This creates the emotional sensation of an inscrutable memory. Because your brain interprets said familiar memory as recollective, you feel you’re sure you’ve experienced the memory before. Still, the brain’s inability to locate the memory (seeing as there isn’t truly one) complicates things, making the memory seem hazy and almost like a dream. This produces the confusion of knowing there’s no way you could have experienced the memory in the first place.

Image source: PBS, https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ut8mYGi0YRs

For the most part, déjà vu is an entirely normal and healthy reminder that our brain isn’t perfect and makes mistakes, just like us. In rare cases, déjà vu can indicate a neurological disorder. As a possible effect of temporal lobe seizures, many individuals with epilepsy report frequent feelings of déjà vu. Epilepsy often includes focal seizures that occur in the brain, and it’s possible to have said seizures in the frontal and temporal lobes, where the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus are stored, respectively. These seizures are generated by uncontrolled electrical activity that causes nerve cells to misfire in the brain. However, don’t worry if you just experience déjà vu occasionally. Focal seizures frequently have a slew of other signs, such as lack of muscle control, twitching, having sensations involved with all five senses, confusion regarding where you are, and frequent, sudden, unexplained emotions (so there is no need to call up your doctor and ask if you have epilepsy, simply because you’ve experienced déjà vu). If you do ever feel like you are about to have a seizure, it is important to notify someone immediately and contact a doctor if the issue persists.

Sources

“Synthetic Biology’s Promise and Peril: Shaping the Future of Medicine

Biology, Science / By Ruby Hyland

Image Credit: https://www.technologynetworks.com/drug-discovery/blog/how-is-synthetic-biology-shaping-the-future-of-drug-discovery-340290

As a recent and ever-changing form of medicine and science, synthetic biology is paving the way for the future of medicine. Defined as a “research and engineering domain of biology where a human-designed genetic program is synthesized and transplanted into a relevant cell type from an extant organism” (A.M. Calladine, R. ter Meulen, 2013), synthetic biology offers possible solutions to some of society’s most pressing medical issues. Through DNA sequence modification and genome editing, scientists have been able to edit genetic material in living organisms with tools such as CRISPR (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats). This ability allows scientists to provide organisms with genetic tools that nature has not yet apportioned. CRISPR also allows for the creation of ‘living therapeutics’ and introduction of immunity cells into the human body.

So, what does this all mean? Well, synthetically creating genetic tools has already allowed for a breakthrough in different areas of production, such as the ability for silkworms to produce spider silk, as well as genetically engineered food, such as cheese, plant-based meat, etc., some of which are already available on a market scale. This provides society with a more sustainable way of creating different materials, which may be necessary as we continue to experience the impacts of consumerism on our planet’s environment. Living therapeutics and immune cells can help treat patients with various diseases, including multiple forms of cancer, providing them with a better chance of recovery and survival. Synthetic biology also assisted in the mass production of certain COVID-19 vaccines by manufacturing the SARS-CoV-2 genome sequence.

It’s clear that an abundance of benefits derive from the usage of synthetic biology. Consequently, as with most technological advancements, there is also a profusion of risks. A majority of these risks appear to be ethical and extremely dangerous. According to The University of Oxford, synthetic biology, although promising, gives biologists a concerning way of ‘playing god.’ Misusing synthetic biology could potentially destroy existing ecosystems and undermine our crucial distinction between living organisms and machines. The loss of this distinction could be catastrophic for humans’ view on the importance of different organisms and creates an ethical concern of prioritizing machines and technology over nature and living organisms. Synthetic biology also introduces the risk of the synthesization of known human pathogens, such as Influenza or Smallpox, which could be released in much more dangerous forms than what they currently are. Although some of these associated risks are unlikely, the potential danger they inflict could be devastating.

When considering the sad reality of human greed, it is essential to question whether the findings of synthetic biology will continue to be used for good. If put into the wrong hands, the technology could cause the decimation of multiple existing species, ultimately jeopardizing the balance of our ecosystem. Synthetic biology also poses the genuine risk of bioterrorism, as creating hazardous and genetically mutated organisms could be maliciously and violently released. Control of this technology is seen more in richer first-world countries, creating an inequality regarding access and usage. This gives certain countries, such as the U.S., an extensive scientific advantage over other countries, which could be used at the expense of other nations.

It is still being determined what the future of synthetic biology holds, but it is imperative that both the benefits and drawbacks are considered. Naturally, we hope synthetic biology continues to be used for the greater of humankind, but that could very easily and swiftly change. Therefore, and when considering that we are already in the midst of multiple ethical, moral, and environmental crises, it is necessary to be aware of the information we consume and promote, specifically regarding the ongoing evolution of technology and science.