Science

Synthetic Biology: A Brave New World of Cures and Cautions

Biology, Biotech, Medicine, Must Read, Science, Technology / By

As a recent and ever-changing form of medicine and science, synthetic biology is paving the way for the future of medicine. Defined as a “research and engineering domain of biology where a human-designed genetic program is synthesized and transplanted into a relevant cell type from an extant organism” (A.M. Calladine, R. ter Meulen, 2013), synthetic biology offers possible solutions to some of society’s most pressing medical issues. Through DNA sequence modification and genome editing, scientists have been able to edit genetic material in living organisms with tools such as CRISPR (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats). This ability allows scientists to provide organisms with genetic tools that nature has not yet apportioned. CRISPR also allows for the creation of ‘living therapeutics’ and introduction of immunity cells into the human body. 

So, what does this all mean? Well, synthetically creating genetic tools has already allowed for a breakthrough in different areas of production, such as the ability for silkworms to produce spider silk, as well as genetically engineered food, such as cheese, plant-based meat, etc., some of which are already available on a market scale. This provides society with a more sustainable way of creating different materials, which may be necessary as we continue to experience the impacts of consumerism on our planet’s environment. Living therapeutics and immune cells can help treat patients with various diseases, including multiple forms of cancer, providing them with a better chance of recovery and survival. Synthetic biology also assisted in the mass production of certain COVID-19 vaccines by manufacturing the SARS-CoV-2 genome sequence. 

It’s clear that an abundance of benefits derive from the usage of synthetic biology. Consequently, as with most technological advancements, there is also a profusion of risks. A majority of these risks appear to be ethical and extremely dangerous. According to The University of Oxford, synthetic biology, although promising, gives biologists a concerning way of ‘playing god.’ Misusing synthetic biology could potentially destroy existing ecosystems and undermine our crucial distinction between living organisms and machines. The loss of this distinction could be catastrophic for humans’ view on the importance of different organisms and creates an ethical concern of prioritizing machines and technology over nature and living organisms. Synthetic biology also introduces the risk of the synthesization of known human pathogens, such as Influenza or Smallpox, which could be released in much more dangerous forms than what they currently are. Although some of these associated risks are unlikely, the potential danger they inflict could be devastating. 

When considering the sad reality of human greed, it is essential to question whether the findings of synthetic biology will continue to be used for good. If put into the wrong hands, the technology could cause the decimation of multiple existing species, ultimately jeopardizing the balance of our ecosystem. Synthetic biology also poses the genuine risk of bioterrorism, as creating hazardous and genetically mutated organisms could be maliciously and violently released. Control of this technology is seen more in richer first-world countries, creating an inequality regarding access and usage. This gives certain countries, such as the U.S., an extensive scientific advantage over other countries, which could be used at the expense of other nations. 

It is still being determined what the future of synthetic biology holds, but it is imperative that both the benefits and drawbacks are considered. Naturally, we hope synthetic biology continues to be used for the greater of humankind, but that could very easily and swiftly change. Therefore, and when considering that we are already in the midst of multiple ethical, moral, and environmental crises, it is necessary to be aware of the information we consume and promote, specifically regarding the ongoing evolution of technology and science. 

Sources

How Did Life Itself Come Into Existence?

Bio Chemistry, Science / By

If you’re reading this right now, you have a personal stake in answering the above question, that is, how did life come into existence? From the concepts of evolution (progression of life) to the origin of innovations meant to improve the quality of living a thousandfold, this is one of the few things that has been debated by scientific communities worldwide for centuries. 

Before we delve into this topic, we need to address what exactly is life for us to understand how it can be identified. Now, this may seem obvious as you can just point to yourself and shout “life!” with a fervor akin to an eureka moment, but just bear with me. There are thousands of definitions all-encompassing this topic, so we’ll cover the black-and-white one necessary to understand this article: “Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from matter that does not. […]” (Wikipedia, para. 1). 

Now that we addressed what we’ll be talking about, let’s touch upon the ideas that have been supported by members of scientific communities. There have been a slew of these theories, each one as different as the next. Some have ignored evolutionary standpoints in favor of supporting biblical citings that God created Adam and Eve and demanded that they procreate to foster future generations. Others have speculated mind-altering possibilities like life being formed out of stardust. There are even people who give into the idea that one day life just happened to occur, defeating the odds in a 1:4^300 fashion (in short, basically a near zero possibility). 

But, for all the struggles of science, there has been a rising, consistent trend about one theory that encompasses quite a couple of already acknowledged objective realities about other environments: the assembly of cells to function like a team, the concepts of natural selection and evolution, and a really, really, really small chance. 

First and foremost to this journey is the building blocks. Whether it would be a massive skyscraper or the physiological needs of human beings, life itself is no exception. In this case, its building blocks are cells, or “[…] the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes […]” (BYJUS, para. 1).

Image credit: American Chemical Society, depicts cell clusters under a microscope.

Now, the concept of a really small chance is where this first comes in. While the possibility of a human just appearing fully formed is practically zero, the chance of an extremely improbable chemical reaction occurring is considerably more likely. After all, the universe’s formation and all it entails follows a similar line of reasoning, but that’s a digression.

Then comes the theory of evolution. Although we all know that chimpanzees turned into humans eventually (displayed by likeness in genes and similarities in physical features), cells undergo the same transformation. With the help of natural selection, that is, ‘survival of the fittest’ in short, these cells were able to continuously evolve and progress until they couldn’t do so anymore.

Although these cells didn’t have as much to differentiate themselves as other fully functioning species that we see currently, they still were able to adjust through replacing what they utilized to function as a means to enhance their efficiency. For instance, cells chose to swap out its original genetic material, RNA, with Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) given its improved stability and suppleness. If that’s not all, cells even incorporate other molecules like proteins to speed up the catalysts of chemical reactions, in other words, what’s the intermediary between them and them attaining their goal at performing their designated function. Their capabilities to evolve and adapt makes it known that they were the original pros at becoming the lean, mean, efficient machines that are in every living thing. 

Finally, we arrive at how we went from microscopic cells to actual fairly visible matter. Although cells reach a limit when they form individually, that same limitation is overcome when multicellularity (or the combination of cells to perform a function) occurs. When this happens, cells finally quit going their separate ways and instead collide, enabling larger formations (such as complete organs) to come into existence.

Ironically, the formation of something as volatile and unpredictable as life came through a series of just as unlikely events, from extremely improbable reactions to survival of the fittest mantras in cells that can’t even speak to one another (or maybe they can and we just don’t know). But it does make some wonder as to what else has yet to be discovered? What else has yet to be formed from a series of unpredictable and yet possibly fated events? 

Sources

  • https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/are-we-really-made-of-stardust.html
  • https://en.wikipehttps://www.science20.com/stars_planets_life/calculating_odds_life_could_begin_chancedia.org/wiki/Life
  • https://www.science20.com/stars_planets_life/calculating_odds_life_could_begin_chance
  • https://byjus.com/biology/cells/
  • https://evolution.berkeley.edu/glossary/natural-selection/
  • https://evolution.berkeley.edu/from-soup-to-cells-the-origin-of-life/how-did-life-originate/

Battling Plastic Pollution: Unveiling Nature’s Tiny Heroes

Biology, Ecology, Editors Pick, Science / By

Polyethylene, plastic for short. It’s used everywhere, from the humble water bottle to grand and towering airplanes. We all hear that plastic doesn’t decompose, but many of us adopt an “out of sight, out of mind” thinking process. But, all because you can’t see a problem doesn’t mean that it’s not there. 

Over 170 trillion plastic pieces are in our oceans currently, with that number exponentially skyrocketing. This causes several issues, primarily a negative impact on wildlife and ecosystems within the ocean (colloquially referred to as plastic pollution). 

Fish (among other aquatic creatures) run the risk of being constricted by plastic rings, eating miniature pieces of them, or even having them cut against their skin. Not only this, but the plastic itself is toxic, with it containing thousands of chemicals that are harmful for aquatic life but also anyone else who comes in contact with contaminated water, humans included.

Image credit: https://www.surfacemag.com/articles/plastic-research-toxins-carcinogens/, depicts a gigantic pile of empty plastic containers. 

Since the dawn of its creation, it was just assumed as an unfortunate reality that we had to accept: gain a powerful, versatile, and cheap material and sentence the oceans and all the life it maintains to the guillotine. After all, it would cost an arm and a leg (upwards of $150 billion specifically) to remove the majority, not even all, of the plastic. 

But what if human hands combined with those of Mother Nature? What if we called upon the meek insects that scurry on the floors we stepped on to remove this pollution? What if we found a solution to this problem, a cheap and readily available cure for this illness? Well, that may just be possible.

October of 2022 brought more than just the welcoming of Halloween, it also was the time of a critical discovery: a type of caterpillar whose spit could decompose plastic. This was oddly enough discovered by a hobbyist beekeeper named Federica, who placed these caterpillars (wax moth in particular) into a plastic bag and found out briefly afterward that they had escaped, leaving multiple holes as their tunnels to freedom. 

But first, let’s review how they were able to do that. They utilized two specific enzymes, or proteins designed to cause a biochemical reaction, named Ceres and Demeter. These were considerably faster at decomposing plastic than traditional means (e.g. fungi or general bacteria), which could take weeks at a time. 

Scientists are currently looking to harvest and mass-produce these enzymes to decompose plastic at a more global scale. Although this is still in the beta phase of testing, it does offer a multitude of questions. How much faster do these enzymes decay plastic than conventional means? Are there other enzymes like this? How long will it take before it can be synthesized and ready for mass engineering? 

But, it does offer something important: a step in the right direction. With the capabilities of science and the will of those who desire clean water free of plastic residue, anything is possible, just maybe with the help of some little bugs by our side. 

Self Healing Metal might be a reality

Engineering, Physics / By

Every single day, humans utilize objects that contain metal in them. From the joints that make a phone function to cars that drive through bridges that are suspended off of metallic pipes and tubes, it would make sense that metal is just about ingrained into everyday life. 

Just as this is completely undeniable, so too is the logic of deterioration, or wear and tear after usage. As we use our phones, it slows down and eventually shuts itself off permanently. As we drive our cars, they eventually break down, only to never be salvaged again. As we walk on bridges, each step causes the metallic tubes to bear even more weight upon their shoulders, struggling to hold on and eventually collapsing.

All of these issues cause an eventual loss of life within these objects, resulting in billions of dollars and millions of hours being spent to replace them. This was seen as an unfortunate but necessary sacrifice: we gain the ability to use these things, so it’s only fair that eventually, we lose (and need to replace) them. 

But what if wear-and-tear would cease to exist? What if this fundamental law of nature that humans have accepted as common sense was broken? That may just be possible. 

July of 2023 brought more than just sunny weather and humidity (at least in New York): it also brought the impossibility of self-healing metal to life. Although you might imagine this like T-1000 in Terminator Two: Judgement Day, in which the robot repaired itself no matter what it was hit with, you’d be a little off.  In reality, this healing happens in a realm the human eye could hardly even fathom: the nanoscopic level. That’s not to say that you can’t see the repair eventually, but it’s not as prominently quick as you may initially believe so. 

Onto the process that was used. This method (known as cold welding), was ironic by nature, and yet successful by design. The metal had to have the ends of its tiny metallic pieces pulled rapidly (approximately 200 times per second). This resulted in cracks forming and expanding, but around 40 minutes into the utilization of this process, the metal began to fuse back together.

Red depicts the pulling apart (tensile stress) of the metal, whereas the green represents the repairing of itself. 

Although this may seem insignificant at first (after all, it’s just recombining some metal), it does call into question the possibilities. If harnessed and mastered to the point where it was automated, it would enable anything, from bridges to cars to cell phones to microchips and everything in between to repair itself. 

This not only reduces the cost and time of fixing it manually but would also usher in a new era of engineering: with less to fix, there’d be more opportunity to create. If we can break the laws of nature and make inanimate objects heal themselves, what else can we do?

  • https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.145501
  • https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06223-0
  • https://newsreleases.sandia.gov/healing_metals/

Could the universe be twice as old?

Astronomy, Physics, Science / By

The James Webb Telescope has been providing us with crucial information regarding our solar system, other galaxies and our universe. Not long ago, the telescope found six galaxies that could possibly be older than the universe, that is, older than the big bang, which is when scientists believe our galactic story began. 

These “universe breakers,” have already left astronomers and scientists puzzled – and therefore many of them have started to question if the universe is as old as we deem it to be. An article published by the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, claims that the universe might be almost double its current estimated age – 26.7 billion years old. What proof do they have to claim this?

Measuring the age of the universe?

The redshift phenomena – put in simple words, the rate of expansion of the universe, is what scientists and astronomers use to understand and estimate the age of the universe. 

When red light travels, its wavelengths are much longer than violet/blue light waves. Longer wavelengths indicate that light is reaching us from a place in space that is almost impossible to reach, it’s very far away. This is how scientists measure how far away things are in this cosmos. It is also how the James Webb Telescope (JWT) was able to identify those six galaxies.

CC: James Webb telescope detects evidence of ancient ‘universe breaker’ galaxies

The Proof:

The galaxies founded by JWT were almost 13.5 billion years old – when the universe was just a baby. The likelihood of celestial objects to exist when the universe was in its earliest stages is almost impossible. 

Not to mention, these galaxies seem to be far too advanced to have existed in the universes’ early stages.

Other than these galaxies, there is Methuselah. This star appears to either be older than the universe itself, or has existed since the early stages of the universe. 

Though the findings of the universe being almost 27 billion years old seem convincing, only few research papers and genuine proofs have been submitted by university scientists and space research organisations. 

New drug clinically slows down cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s patients by 35%

Medicine, Pharmacology, Science / By

CC: Unsplash

Donanemab, “seen as a turning point in dementia fight,” as per a report from the BBC, is a drug that has slowed cognitive decline of the symptoms of dementia/Alzheimer’s by 35% (as per data presented July 17 at the Alzheimer’s Association International Conference in Amsterdam).

This antibody can temporarily put a hold to the effects of the disease on the patient. “The rationale behind Donanemab is that targeting deposited plaque itself is necessary to clear existing amyloid burden from the brain, rather than merely prevent deposition of new plaques or growth of existing plaques.” (Source: https://www.alzforum.org/therapeutics/donanemab)

Donanemab is primarily targeted towards patients in the early stages of the disease, and has shown significant results depicting an optimistic future in finding a cure/cures for the disease. 

Before continuing, it should be known that though the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia diseases are similar, their causes are usually different. Generally, all diseases that contribute to memory loss are due to nerve cell damage and plaque build up, and Alzheimer’s disease is no different.

It is caused due to the abnormal or excess build up of protein in and around brain cells, and all diseases that come under dementia are due to nerve cell damage. Amyloid is one such protein that is most commonly present in Alzheimer’s disease patients. 

Dementia is somewhat of an umbrella term, and includes various diseases and conditions that contribute to memory loss and odd behavior, Alzheimer’s disease being one, Parkinson’s disease, Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) among others. 

Denenomab specifically targets the Amyloid protein, and is therefore subjected for Alzheimer’s disease, not other dementia diseases.

Previously, the FDA (food and drug administration) gave approval to another drug, Lecanemab, another drug whose main goal is to slow down cognitive decline as well. Both of these drugs aim to remove amyloid plaque from the brain, which is presumed to be the cause of the disease in the first place.

In a nutshell, the main purpose of Donanemab is to clear amyloid plaque present in the brain, which is usually present in Alzheimer disease patients. 

It should be noted that these drugs do have side effects, some concerning, such as internal brain bleeding and/or swelling, and even four deaths – three of whom were tested in the Donanemab group. Though the probability of such risks are rare, intensive research and development is still required until they can officially be licensed as drugs. 

It should also be understood that the drug doesn’t stop cognitive decline, it is just that it slows or delays the symptoms of cognitive decline, and that the known symptoms are bound to be visible in patients over an extended period of time.

As per JAMA, “Donanemab significantly slowed Alzheimer disease progression, based on the iADRS (Integrated Alzheimer’s Disease Rating Scale) score.” 

This new drug could possibly open doors to finding a temporary cure for the disease, and make it long lasting instead of permanent – similar to diabetes or asthma. 

References:

John R. Sims, MD. “Trial of Donanemab in Early Symptomatic Alzheimer Disease.” JAMA, JAMA Network, 17 July 2023, jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2807533. 

MC, Irizarry, et al. “Donanemab.” ALZFORUM, www.alzforum.org/therapeutics/donanemab. 

FDA Grants Accelerated Approval for Alzheimer’s Disease Treatment, https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-grants-accelerated-approval-alzheimers-disease-treatment

Defeating Time: A breakthrough in Aging.

Bio Chemistry, Medicine, Technology / By

Something you can’t see or hear until years go by. Something you recognize as simple and yet impossible to avoid. Something that is known as both the cruelest and most beautiful law in all of nature. Something that neither the richest nor poorest person can escape from. That something is time. 

Throughout mankind, humans have been able to conquer just about everything, from their minuscule problems to global affairs. However, with all of our minds combined, we still failed to defeat the toughest opponent of all: time. For what seems like since the origin of the universe, it appeared as the one unstoppable force that nobody could fight.

That is until 2022. While this year beckoned the end of the COVID-19 pandemic, it also brought along news about a case study conducted by David Sinclair, a molecular biologist who spent the vast majority of his career (twenty years) searching for ways to reverse aging and undoing time in the process. While the beginning of his journey was unsuccessful, he didn’t give up. 

The study split up two different mice (siblings born from the same litter) and genetically altered one of them to make them considerably older, something that was a marked success. While this alone is not indicative of a reversal in aging, it does bring up an important question: if time could be sped up, could it also be slowed down or even undone altogether? However, before we get to that, we need to understand just how the mice were genetically altered and why. 

Image credit: https://www.cnn.com, depiction of two mice from the same litter being drastically different in age appearance.

Many believe that aging is caused due to cell damage, but that’s not exactly accurate. That is one of the reasons, yes, but that’s not the main cause. Instead, we should look at the heart of the matter: the epigenome. It is what determines what each cell becomes and how it works, an instructional manual of sorts for each cell. When the epigenome malfunctions, the “instructions” of the cells are lost, thus resulting in the cell failing to continue functioning. 

So, Sinclair utilized gene therapy to get the cells their instructions to continue working and the results were shocking. Sinclair wasn’t only able to display success in accelerating aging, but also reversing it as well by nearly 60%. What’s more, this appears to be limitless, with Sinclair even citing that “[he’s] been really surprised by how universally it works. [Him and his team] haven’t found a cell type yet that [they] can’t age forward and backward.”

This expands beyond mice: it has already been utilized to reverse aging in non-human primates through the use of doxycycline, an antibiotic with gene reprogramming potential, with rapid success. There has even been some human experimentation, with gene therapy being done on human tissues in lab settings. 

The ability to reverse aging across the board brings up more than just stopping time, it also enables the possibility of halting sickness relating to aging. In retrospect, these illnesses (like dementia and Alzheimers among others) are caused due to cell malfunction. If the reversal of aging is potent enough, it runs the risk of also undoing these illnesses. 

With the potential to halt aging and enable people to live into their hundreds without fear of age-related illnesses, it does bring up countless possibilities. If we can already undo aging on a small scale, imagine what the future ten, fifty, or even a hundred years from now can behold.

  • https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(22)01570-7
  • https://time.com/6246864/reverse-aging-scientists-discover-milestone/
  • https://www.cnn.com/2022/06/02/health/reverse-aging-life-itself-scn-wellness/index.html

Who Would You Trust More: AI or Doctors?

Artificial Intelligence, Medicine, Must Read, Science, Technology / By

For as long as the profession existed, doctors have been working diligently to perfect their craft and refine any rough edges, diagnosing, treating, and eventually curing their patients in the most efficient way possible in their eyes. However, mistakes are frequently made: medical malpractice is the third leading cause of death in the United States, with over 250,000 deaths occurring yearly. Despite the rigorous education doctors undergo to officially practice their craft, they too still make mistakes. It’s human nature to err sometimes, even in life-or-death scenarios. For the majority of time, it appeared as if this was just a sacrifice that had to be made to keep one of the world’s oldest, and most vital, professions stable. 

But what if the risk of human error was eliminated by having humans removed from the equation when it came to distributing medical care?  This would dynamically pivot the medical industry and the person-to-person interaction we all know today, in a completely different direction. Some speculate that this is possible, through the utilization of artificial intelligence (AI). 

Artificial intelligence has permeated throughout the medical field briefly, but it’s been shut down due to a variety of complications, whether it’d be availability, cost, unreliability, or a combination of these factors (among others). This was especially true of Mycin, an expert system designed by Stanford University researchers to assist physicians in detecting and curing bacterial diseases. Despite its superb accuracy, being even as reliable as human experts on the matter, it was far too rigid and costly to be maintained. Despite not being medically affiliated, Google image software is another example of just how unreliable AI is: it assessed, with 100% certainty, that a slightly changed image of a cat is guacamole, a completely incorrect observation.

However, as modern technology rapidly advances, with special emphasis on machine learning (the ability of a machine to function and improve upon itself without human intervention), some believe that AI can now pick up the slack of physicians. 

This claim isn’t entirely unsubstantiated: artificial intelligence can already assess whether or not infants have certain conditions (of which there are thousands of) by facial markers, something doctors struggle with due to the massive variety of illnesses. MGene, an app that has Ai examine a photo taken of a child by its user, has over a 90% success rate at accurately detecting four serious, potentially life-threatening syndromes (Down, DiGeorge, Williams, and Noonan). AI even detected COVID-19, or SARS-CoV-2, within Wuhan, China (the origin of this virus) a week before the World Health Organization (WHO) announced it as a new virus.

With every passing day, it appears that more and more boxes that are needing to be checked, enabling the possibility of artificial intelligence becoming a dominating presence within the medical field to become one step closer to turning into a reality.

That isn’t to say that there are issues with having artificial intelligence enter the medical industry: beyond the previous problems (of cost and unreliability) being possible, Ai being ever-changing also opens up the doors to bias, ranging from socioeconomic status to race to gender and everything in between. In addition, the usage of AI also is uncomfortable to many due to the removal of the person-to-person interaction that is commonly known to people, another big issue that needs to be addressed to ensure the successful implementation of artificial intelligence into the healthcare sector. 

Regardless of what side you are on, there is a common ground: artificial intelligence will continue to get more and more advanced. While it is uncertain as to whether the general public will want AI to replace doctors, have them serve as back-end helpers, or not exist whatsoever in the office, it is clear that artificial intelligence is a tool that has both a lot of benefits and drawbacks. Whether AI is implemented or not is a question that is left to the future. 

AI can now use the help of CRISPR to precisely control gene expressions in RNA

Artificial Intelligence, Bio Chemistry, Biology, Biomedical, Engineering, Medicine, Science, Technology / By

Almost all infectious and deadly viruses are caused due to their RNA coding. Researchers from established research universities, such as NYU and Columbia, alongside the New York Genome Center, have researched and discovered a new type of CRISPR technology that targets this RNA and might just prevent the spread of deadly diseases and infections.

A new study from Nature Biotechnology has shown that the development of major gene editing tools like CRISPR will serve to be beneficial at an even larger scale. CRISPR, in a nutshell, is a gene editing piece of technology that can be used to switch gene expression on and off. Up until now, it was only known that CRISPR, with the help of the enzyme Cas9, could only edit DNA. With the recent discovery of Cas13, RNA editing might just become possible as well.

https://theconversation.com/three-ways-rna-is-being-used-in-the-next-generation-of-medical-treatment-158190

RNA is a second type of genetic material present within our cells and body, which plays an essential role in various biological roles such as regulation, expression, coding, and even decoding genes. It plays a significant role in biological processes such as protein synthesis, and these proteins are necessary to carry out various processes. 

RNA viruses

RNA viruses usually exist in 2 types – single-stranded RNA (ssRNA), and double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). RNA viruses are notoriously famous for causing the most common and the most well-known infections – examples being the common cold, influenza, Dengue, hepatitis, Ebola, and even COVID-19. These dangerous and possibly life-threatening viruses only have RNA as their genetic material. So, how can/might AI and CRISPR technology, using the enzyme Cas13 help fight against these nuisances?

Role of CRISPR-Cas13

RNA targeting CRISPRs have various applications – from editing and blocking genes to finding out possible drugs to cure said pathogenic disease/infection. As a report from NYU states, “Researchers at NYU and the New York Genome Center created a platform for RNA-targeting CRISPR screens using Cas13 to better understand RNA regulation and to identify the function of non-coding RNAs. Because RNA is the main genetic material in viruses including SARS-CoV-2 and flu,” the applications of CRISPR-Cas13 can promise us cures and newer ways to treat severe viral infections.

“Similar to DNA-targeting CRISPRs such as Cas9, we anticipate that RNA-targeting CRISPRs such as Cas13 will have an outsized impact in molecular biology and biomedical applications in the coming years,” said Neville Sanjana, associate professor of biology at NYU, associate professor of neuroscience and physiology at NYU Grossman School of Medicine. Learn more about CRISPR, Cas9, and Cas13 here. 

Role of AI

Artificial intelligence is becoming more and more reliant as days pass by. So much so, that it can be used to precisely target RNA coding, especially in the given case scenario. TIGER (Targeted Inhibition of Gene Expression via guide RNA design), was trained on the data from the CRISPR screens. Comparing the predictions generated by the model and laboratory tests in human cells, TIGER was able to predict both on-target and off-target activity, outperforming previous models developed for Cas13 

With the assistance of AI with an RNA-targeting CRISPR screen, TIGER’s predictions might just initiate new and more developed methods of RNA-targeting therapies. In a nutshell, AI will be able to “sieve” out undesired off-target CRISPR activity, making it a more precise and reliable method. 

Quasars Show that Time was Slower in the Early Days of the Universe

Astronomy, Must Read, Physics, Science / By
Artist’s rendering of the accretion disc in ULAS J1120+0641, a very distant quasar powered by a supermassive black hole with a mass two billion times that of the Sun. Image: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar

(Astronomy) A team of astronomers led by Geraint Lewis, the astrophysics professor at the University of Sydney’s School of Physics, have recently proven that time in the early days of the universe, roughly 1 billion years ago, was significantly slower than time at the present day. By looking at quasars, incredibly active supermassive black holes, the team was able to determine how much the present universe has sped up compared to the distant past. This claim also buttresses Albert Einstein’s General Theory of relativity, which states that the passage of time was slower for the distant universe in the past.

Five times slower. That’s how slow Professor Lewis’ team found time to be in the universe’s earliest stage. To quote Professor Lewis: “If you were there, in this infant universe, one second would seem like one second — but from our position, more than 12 billion years into the future, that early time appears to drag.”

This discovery will have a massive impact on other astronomers. Understanding the passage of time in the beginning of the universe can help them not only figure out the endgame of the universe, but also such questions as How was the universe formed? and Are there other universes besides ours?